Here are some theories I have studied from the book Wankat, P. C. & Oreovicz, F. S. Teaching Engineering. Purdue University (chapter 14):
Two theories of cognitive development which have been the most influential in the education of scientists and engineers are Piaget’s theories of childhood development and Perry’s theory of development of college students. Both theories states "that students cannot learn material if they have not reached a particular level of development. Attempts to teach them material which they are unable to learn leads to frustration and memorization."
Piaget’s theory (Wankat & Oreovicz, chapter 14)
According to Piaget’s theory, intellectual development takes place in four distinct periods.
- the sensorimotor period: from birth to about two years of age
- the preoperational period: from two to seven years of age
- the concrete operational stage: from seven to eleven or twelve / adulthood ("Most current estimates are that from 30 to 60 percent of adults are in the concrete operational stage.")
- the formal operational stage: may start as early as age eleven or twelve, but often later (for example engineering education requires formal operational thought)
In my opinion, Piaget's theory is useful to explain why many people find, for example, engineering sciences impossible to learn. However, I think this theory is too simple since it doesn't take into account motivation and interest in learning process. Piaget has also been criticized that he didn't recognize the importance of specific knowledge in problem-solving skills.
Perry's theory of development of college students (Wankat & Oreovicz, chapter 14)
"Perry’s model is concerned first with how students move from a dualistic (right versus wrong) view of the universe to a more relativistic view, and second, how students develop commitments within this relativistic world."
Source: Wankat, P. C. & Oreovicz, F. S. Teaching Engineering. Chapter 14. Purdue University.
lauantai 22. helmikuuta 2014
Auditory, kinesthetic, and visual mode
According to Wankat & Oreovicz (Teaching Engineering, chapter 15), people use three different modes for perceiving the world: auditory, kinesthetic, and visual.
Kinesthetic learning: for chefs, athletes, therapists, artists, skilled craftspersons, etc., but also for any students, who are working in laboratories and handling real components such as circuit boards, valves, and machine tools
"Visual learners prefer to process information in pictures, and they prefer to learn from pictures, charts, diagrams, figures, actual equipment, photographs, and graphic images. This appears to be the preferred mode of learning for most people (Barbe and Milone, 1981)."
"Auditory teaching methods are most commonly used in Western education systems. This includes lectures and print material. Reading and writing words on the blackboard are visual representations of auditory processing techniques in Western cultures. Few people prefer to use auditory learning if given a choice."
"Stice (1987) reports on some early data from the Socony-Vacuum Oil Company which supports this contention. For reading alone, the learner’s retention was 10 percent; for hearing alone, 26 percent; and for seeing, 30 percent. If the learner both saw and heard, retention was 50 percent; if the learner said something, retention was 70 percent; and if the learner said and did something, the retention was 90 percent. Thus, auditory styles of teaching should be heavily supplemented with visual and, to a lesser extent, kinesthetic learning opportunities."
These three modes were not any new information to me, but I found it interesting to learn how much retention improved when auditory teaching was not the only method used.
Source: Wankat, P. C. & Oreovicz, F. S. Teaching Engineering. Chapter 15. Purdue University.
Kinesthetic learning: for chefs, athletes, therapists, artists, skilled craftspersons, etc., but also for any students, who are working in laboratories and handling real components such as circuit boards, valves, and machine tools
"Visual learners prefer to process information in pictures, and they prefer to learn from pictures, charts, diagrams, figures, actual equipment, photographs, and graphic images. This appears to be the preferred mode of learning for most people (Barbe and Milone, 1981)."
"Auditory teaching methods are most commonly used in Western education systems. This includes lectures and print material. Reading and writing words on the blackboard are visual representations of auditory processing techniques in Western cultures. Few people prefer to use auditory learning if given a choice."
"Stice (1987) reports on some early data from the Socony-Vacuum Oil Company which supports this contention. For reading alone, the learner’s retention was 10 percent; for hearing alone, 26 percent; and for seeing, 30 percent. If the learner both saw and heard, retention was 50 percent; if the learner said something, retention was 70 percent; and if the learner said and did something, the retention was 90 percent. Thus, auditory styles of teaching should be heavily supplemented with visual and, to a lesser extent, kinesthetic learning opportunities."
These three modes were not any new information to me, but I found it interesting to learn how much retention improved when auditory teaching was not the only method used.
Source: Wankat, P. C. & Oreovicz, F. S. Teaching Engineering. Chapter 15. Purdue University.
Dichotomous styles in learning
According to Wankat & Oreovicz (Teaching Engineering. chapter 15), there are many dichotomies in learning styles. I found learning about two of them especially interesting, since I might haven't thought them otherwise.
1. Deductive versus inductive learners: "Deductive reasoning starts with general principles and then deduces consequences from these general principles. Inductive reasoning starts with specifics and then proceeds to induce generalities.” I learnt that according a study students preferred an inductive style, while professors preferred to teach deductively. I guess it's more work for teachers to find good examples to teach inductively, and that's why they favour the deductive style.
2. Another dichotomy appears in information processing, which can occur either serially (sequentially) or globally (holistically) (Claxton and Murrell, 1987; Felder and Silverman, 1988). I find this information interesting, since I wasn't aware of this dichotomy. This information helps me to understand how students process information, and thus operate more effective as a teacher.
"Serialists take information in logical sequence and build their knowledge structures step by step. They can function quite well without seeing the big picture. Since most elementary and high school classrooms follow a sequential procedure, serialists often do quite well in school. Holistic learners are driven early in the process to create a knowledge structure which shows the big picture even though most of the details are missing.
As they learn, holistic learners fill in the details. Serialists tend to be better at details, and holists are better at overviews or seeing how everything fits together. Advance organizers* are extremely useful for holists and are probably ignored by most serialists. Since globalists often struggle, particularly in introductory courses, it is important for professors to provide some aid and encouragement. In advanced classes globalists may have an advantage since they can see connections and do syntheses which are difficult for serialists."
*) Examples of advanced organizers: http://www.glnd.k12.va.us/resources/graphicalorganizers/
Source: Wankat, P. C. & Oreovicz, F. S. Teaching Engineering. Chapter 15. Purdue University.
1. Deductive versus inductive learners: "Deductive reasoning starts with general principles and then deduces consequences from these general principles. Inductive reasoning starts with specifics and then proceeds to induce generalities.” I learnt that according a study students preferred an inductive style, while professors preferred to teach deductively. I guess it's more work for teachers to find good examples to teach inductively, and that's why they favour the deductive style.
2. Another dichotomy appears in information processing, which can occur either serially (sequentially) or globally (holistically) (Claxton and Murrell, 1987; Felder and Silverman, 1988). I find this information interesting, since I wasn't aware of this dichotomy. This information helps me to understand how students process information, and thus operate more effective as a teacher.
"Serialists take information in logical sequence and build their knowledge structures step by step. They can function quite well without seeing the big picture. Since most elementary and high school classrooms follow a sequential procedure, serialists often do quite well in school. Holistic learners are driven early in the process to create a knowledge structure which shows the big picture even though most of the details are missing.
As they learn, holistic learners fill in the details. Serialists tend to be better at details, and holists are better at overviews or seeing how everything fits together. Advance organizers* are extremely useful for holists and are probably ignored by most serialists. Since globalists often struggle, particularly in introductory courses, it is important for professors to provide some aid and encouragement. In advanced classes globalists may have an advantage since they can see connections and do syntheses which are difficult for serialists."
*) Examples of advanced organizers: http://www.glnd.k12.va.us/resources/graphicalorganizers/
Source: Wankat, P. C. & Oreovicz, F. S. Teaching Engineering. Chapter 15. Purdue University.
Learning theories: Constructivism
Constructivism is described in Wikipedia as follows: "Constructivism, a perspective in education, is based on experimental learning through real life experience to construct and conditionalize knowledge. It is problem based, adaptive learning, that challenges faulty schema, integrates new knowledge with existing knowledge, and allows for creation of original work or innovative procedures."
Wikipedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructivism_%28philosophy_of_education%29
Here are some exercises from the chapter 15 that can help students to develop a knowledge structure. I find these suggestions good, since they can give life to some dry text chapters.
- The development of a key relations chart for every book chapter or section of the course: "A key relations chart lists and diagrams the key ideas, equations, relations, definitions, and so forth, on a single page. The chart can be evaluated for accuracy and completeness. Some professors allow students to consult key relation charts during tests."
- A related exercise is to have small groups of students develop a memory board (Woods et al., 1975), "which is similar to a key relations chart but is significantly more complete. It can include more equations, rules, interrelationships, and problem-solving hints."
- Concept maps or networks: A concept map or network visually represents the relationship between concepts, usually two-dimensionally. Both the hierarchical relationships and the key cross-links between concepts are shown. Concept maps are complementary to key relations charts and memory boards since the concept map does not give equations, definitions, or ideas.
Source: Wankat, P. C. & Oreovicz, F. S. Teaching Engineering. Chapter 15. Purdue University.
Wikipedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructivism_%28philosophy_of_education%29
Here are some exercises from the chapter 15 that can help students to develop a knowledge structure. I find these suggestions good, since they can give life to some dry text chapters.
- The development of a key relations chart for every book chapter or section of the course: "A key relations chart lists and diagrams the key ideas, equations, relations, definitions, and so forth, on a single page. The chart can be evaluated for accuracy and completeness. Some professors allow students to consult key relation charts during tests."
- A related exercise is to have small groups of students develop a memory board (Woods et al., 1975), "which is similar to a key relations chart but is significantly more complete. It can include more equations, rules, interrelationships, and problem-solving hints."
- Concept maps or networks: A concept map or network visually represents the relationship between concepts, usually two-dimensionally. Both the hierarchical relationships and the key cross-links between concepts are shown. Concept maps are complementary to key relations charts and memory boards since the concept map does not give equations, definitions, or ideas.
Source: Wankat, P. C. & Oreovicz, F. S. Teaching Engineering. Chapter 15. Purdue University.
torstai 20. helmikuuta 2014
Evaluation of teaching
Evaluation of teaching is important tool to guide improvement of teaching. Evaluations made during the course are called formative evaluations. Summative evaluations are done at the end of the course or well after the course is over. Questions for students should be specific and deal with the textbook, handouts, availability of help, homework, tests, lectures, and so forth.
Source: Wankat, P. C. & Oreovicz, F. S. Teaching Engineering. Chapter 16. Purdue University.
Source: Wankat, P. C. & Oreovicz, F. S. Teaching Engineering. Chapter 16. Purdue University.
Digital portfolio, part 6
How does the curriculum direct the development of studies?
Finland has the national core curriculum that is enact by The Finnish National Board of Education. The curricula set out the key objectives, content and policies of education, for example student assessment. Education providers and schools draw up their own local curricula based on the national curricula. (Opetushallitus.)
The curriculum is an essential tool for a teacher, since it includes guidelines for a teacher's work. One of the main tasks of the teacher training is to teach how to apply and develop the curriculum. (Vitikka et al. 2012.)
The curriculum gives a framework, which helps a teacher to plan the contents, methods, and activities of courses to reach the objectives set in the curriculum. On the other hand, a teacher can also participate in developing the curriculum of his/her school.
CURRICULUM PLANNING STEPS (Jordan et al. 2008, 31)
1. identify the need for the programme;
2. determine the aims and instructional objectives of the programme;
3. define the characteristics of the target group;
4. list the precise learning outcomes;
5. categorize learning outcomes according to Bloom’s taxonomies;
- Bloom's concept of ‘mastery learning’ (1968) involves the statement of educational objectives and their translation into learner behaviours so as to generate criteria for assessment grades at various levels in the domain (Jordan et al. 2008, 29)
6. break the material down into small units;
7. carefully sequence these units;
8. provide frequent practice to strengthen the stimulus–response bond;
9. ensure that the learner responds (does things);
10. observe and assess any behavioural changes;
11. provide opportunities for frequent learner feedback;
12. reinforce ‘correct’ behaviour with immediate rewards;
13. evaluate the effectiveness of the programme;
14. modify and improve the programme.
Sources:
Finland has the national core curriculum that is enact by The Finnish National Board of Education. The curricula set out the key objectives, content and policies of education, for example student assessment. Education providers and schools draw up their own local curricula based on the national curricula. (Opetushallitus.)
The curriculum is an essential tool for a teacher, since it includes guidelines for a teacher's work. One of the main tasks of the teacher training is to teach how to apply and develop the curriculum. (Vitikka et al. 2012.)
The curriculum gives a framework, which helps a teacher to plan the contents, methods, and activities of courses to reach the objectives set in the curriculum. On the other hand, a teacher can also participate in developing the curriculum of his/her school.
CURRICULUM PLANNING STEPS (Jordan et al. 2008, 31)
1. identify the need for the programme;
2. determine the aims and instructional objectives of the programme;
3. define the characteristics of the target group;
4. list the precise learning outcomes;
5. categorize learning outcomes according to Bloom’s taxonomies;
- Bloom's concept of ‘mastery learning’ (1968) involves the statement of educational objectives and their translation into learner behaviours so as to generate criteria for assessment grades at various levels in the domain (Jordan et al. 2008, 29)
6. break the material down into small units;
7. carefully sequence these units;
8. provide frequent practice to strengthen the stimulus–response bond;
9. ensure that the learner responds (does things);
10. observe and assess any behavioural changes;
11. provide opportunities for frequent learner feedback;
12. reinforce ‘correct’ behaviour with immediate rewards;
13. evaluate the effectiveness of the programme;
14. modify and improve the programme.
Sources:
- Jordan, A., Orison, C., Stack A. 2008. Approaches to Learning : A Guide for Teachers, Open University Press.
- Opetushallitus. http://www.oph.fi/english/curricula_and_qualifications
- Vitikka, E., Salminen, J: & Annevirta, T. 2012. OPETUSSUUNNITELMA OPETTAJANKOULUTUKSESSA. Opetussuunnitelman käsittely opettajankoulutusten opetussuunnitelmissa. Muistiot 2012:4. http://www.oph.fi/download/141692_Opetussuunnitelma_opettajankoulutuksessa.PDF
Digital portfolio, part 5
What methods of assessment can I use and in which contexts?
Traditional exams can be used in many kinds of context, even though they are not always the best option. Exams should have different types of questions and also alternative questions. Home exams are more for adult student, for example in an open university, where learning result is often more important than just passing the course. Younger students might cheat with home exams and do them as a group work.
Written research assignments are also a general and effective way to perform university courses. Essays, on the other hand, can be used for example in language studies.
In my studies of communication, business administration, and information technology I have done a lot of group work and project work, and I think these methods work fine with these subjects. Group members share knowledge, and thus learn also from each other.
Presentations work well in communication and business administration courses. They are also a way to share information, since different students or groups have studied different topics for their presentation.
Portfolios are convenient for art classes, but also for language studies to collect one's different texts for evaluation. Self-evaluation and peer evaluation, accompanied by a teacher's evaluation, could be used, when evaluating portfolios.
Learning diary could be used for example in self-study class to inform a teacher different phases of learning.
When I was studying in the Netherlands, we had a group discussion at the end of a course. The teachers asked us all individual questions to check how well we knew our project. I found that method very useful for group work, since that way a teacher can check that everybody has participated and learnt.
Activity in the classroom can be evaluated to improve a grade for example in language courses.
- exams (essay questions, multiple choice questions, home exams, spoken exams)
- grading, pass/fail -assessment
- written research assignments
- essays (classroom essays, home essays)
- project work, group work
- presentations
- portfolios
- self-evaluation, peer evaluation
- learning diaries
- group discussions
- activity in the classroom
Traditional exams can be used in many kinds of context, even though they are not always the best option. Exams should have different types of questions and also alternative questions. Home exams are more for adult student, for example in an open university, where learning result is often more important than just passing the course. Younger students might cheat with home exams and do them as a group work.
Written research assignments are also a general and effective way to perform university courses. Essays, on the other hand, can be used for example in language studies.
In my studies of communication, business administration, and information technology I have done a lot of group work and project work, and I think these methods work fine with these subjects. Group members share knowledge, and thus learn also from each other.
Presentations work well in communication and business administration courses. They are also a way to share information, since different students or groups have studied different topics for their presentation.
Portfolios are convenient for art classes, but also for language studies to collect one's different texts for evaluation. Self-evaluation and peer evaluation, accompanied by a teacher's evaluation, could be used, when evaluating portfolios.
Learning diary could be used for example in self-study class to inform a teacher different phases of learning.
When I was studying in the Netherlands, we had a group discussion at the end of a course. The teachers asked us all individual questions to check how well we knew our project. I found that method very useful for group work, since that way a teacher can check that everybody has participated and learnt.
Activity in the classroom can be evaluated to improve a grade for example in language courses.
Digital portfolio, part 4
How do I use technology in my field of pedagogy?
My fields are organizational communication and business administration. Furthermore, I’m studying English philology at the moment and I have also started studying Finnish philology to increase subjects that I could teach.
Information technology is an integrated part of organizational communication and business administration studies, since students should learn basic office programmes while they are in school or university. Using Word and PowerPoint is an essential part of about every course. Moreover, students may need to be able to use publishing programmes and Photoshop in their studies. Optima platform and also Moodle are widely used in different educational institutions.
If I taught online courses, I could use technology in the same way than we are doing in the VOC studies. Online meetings could be organized by using the AC programme and course materials could be delivered via Optima or a blog. Teaching online has its challenges when you don't see students and thus don't get immediate feedback. It would be better to meet students outside of the Internet at the first lesson. If that is not possible, teacher just has to try to encourage students to be active during online sessions. Students should be guided, for example, to raise their virtual hands or use a chat window, when they want to comment something. For the assessment students should produce some individual written task, since otherwise an assessment would be difficult online.
Later, when I’ll be qualified to teach English and Finnish, I could use the same, above-mentioned technological possibilities. There exist also technologies that are aimed for language acquisition. In addition to language studios, which are a well-known solution for organizing language studies, there are also new methods like word game programmes.
My fields are organizational communication and business administration. Furthermore, I’m studying English philology at the moment and I have also started studying Finnish philology to increase subjects that I could teach.
Information technology is an integrated part of organizational communication and business administration studies, since students should learn basic office programmes while they are in school or university. Using Word and PowerPoint is an essential part of about every course. Moreover, students may need to be able to use publishing programmes and Photoshop in their studies. Optima platform and also Moodle are widely used in different educational institutions.
If I taught online courses, I could use technology in the same way than we are doing in the VOC studies. Online meetings could be organized by using the AC programme and course materials could be delivered via Optima or a blog. Teaching online has its challenges when you don't see students and thus don't get immediate feedback. It would be better to meet students outside of the Internet at the first lesson. If that is not possible, teacher just has to try to encourage students to be active during online sessions. Students should be guided, for example, to raise their virtual hands or use a chat window, when they want to comment something. For the assessment students should produce some individual written task, since otherwise an assessment would be difficult online.
Later, when I’ll be qualified to teach English and Finnish, I could use the same, above-mentioned technological possibilities. There exist also technologies that are aimed for language acquisition. In addition to language studios, which are a well-known solution for organizing language studies, there are also new methods like word game programmes.
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